    @article {Alcaraz2023b,
	title = {OCPP in the spotlight: threats and countermeasures for electric vehicle charging infrastructures 4.0},
	journal = {International Journal of Information Security},
	year = {In Press},
	publisher = {Springer},
	address = {Springer Verlag},
	abstract = {<p class="rtejustify">Undoubtedly, Industry 4.0 in the energy sector improves the conditions for automation, generation and distribution of energy, increasing the rate of electric vehicle manufacturing in recent years. As a result, more grid-connected charging infrastructures are being installed, whose charging stations (CSs) can follow standardized architectures, such as the one proposed by the open charge point protocol (OCPP). The most recent version of this protocol is v.2.0.1, which includes new security measures at device and communication level to cover those security issues identified in previous versions. Therefore, this paper analyzes OCPP-v2.0.1 to determine whether the new functions may still be susceptible to specific cyber and physical threats, and especially when CSs may be connected to microgrids. To formalize the study, we first adapted the well-known threat analysis methodology, STRIDE, to identify and classify threats in terms of control and energy, and subsequently we combine it with DREAD for risk assessment. The analyses indicate that, although OCPP-v2.0.1 has evolved, potential security risks still remain, requiring greater protection in the future.</p>
},
	issn = {1615-5262},
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-023-00698-8},
	url = {https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10207-023-00698-8},
	author = {Cristina Alcaraz and Jesus Cumplido and Alicia Trivi{\~n}o}
}
@article {AlcarazLopezWolthusen2017,
	title = {OCPP Protocol: Security Threats and Challenges},
	journal = {IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid},
	volume = {8},
	year = {2017},
	month = {02/2017},
	pages = {2452 - 2459},
	publisher = {IEEE},
	abstract = {<p class="rtejustify">One benefit postulated for the adoption of Electric Vehicles (EVs) is their\&nbsp;ability to act as stabilizing entities in smart grids through bi-directional charging,\&nbsp;allowing local or global smoothing of peaks and imbalances. This benefit,\&nbsp;however, hinges indirectly on the reliability and security of the power flows\&nbsp;thus achieved. Therefore this paper studies key security properties of the alreadydeployed\&nbsp;Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) specifying communication between\&nbsp;charging points and energy management systems. It is argued that possible subversion\&nbsp;or malicious endpoints in the protocol can also lead to destabilization of\&nbsp;power networks. Whilst reviewing these aspects, we focus, from a theoretical and\&nbsp;practical standpoint, on attacks that interfere with resource reservation originating\&nbsp;with the EV, which may also be initiated by a man in the middle, energy theft or\&nbsp;fraud. Such attacks may even be replicated widely, resulting in over- or undershooting\&nbsp;of power network provisioning, or the (total/partial) disintegration of the\&nbsp;integrity and stability of power networks.</p>
},
	keywords = {Charging Infrastructure, Cyber Security, Cyber- Physical Systems, OCPP, Smart Grid},
	issn = {1949-3053 },
	doi = {https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2017.2669647},
	author = {Cristina Alcaraz and Javier Lopez and Stephen Wolthunsen}
}
